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Sheikhs and individuals believed to possess spiritual auras hold an important place in Sudanese society, particularly within Sudan’s Sufi traditions. These sheikhs often follow Islamic methods of healing and ruqya shariya (spiritual healing), which rely on the Quran and Sunnah as references for treatment. While the practice of sorcery and witchcraft are forbidden in Islam, some sheikhs have been known to engage in them for specific purposes. These commonly consulted sheikhs are referred to as ‘spiritual sheikhs’, and visits to their shrines are often associated with pleas to be reunited with a loved one, to break a curse, to influence someone's decision for example or even for more malicious demands, such as bringing misfortune to someone else—a practice referred to as ‘writing’ someone.
Unlike the established Sufi sheikhs, spiritual sheikhs are believed to communicate with beings from other realms. These sorcerers form pacts with ‘magic servants’ (jinn, marid, or ifrit), exchanging services to fulfill specific tasks. This form of communication is considered highly risky and may have possible unintended outcomes. The term jinn, plural of the masculine jinni or feminine jinniya, originates from the verb janna (to conceal or cover), as they are believed to exist hidden from human sight. In Islamic teachings and ancient Arab mythology, jinn are supernatural beings with intellect and understanding. They live in the same world as humans but are usually invisible. Their existence is widely accepted among Muslims.
In Sudan, some believe that faith in jinn and magic dates back to the pre-Kushite civilization. In more recent history, the residents of the ancient island of Suakin believe that jinn have inhabited the area since the time of the Prophet Solomon, and that the island’s name is a corruption of the words sawa (together), and jinn. Many stories and legends have been woven around Suakin, such as tales about its notorious cats who are believed to transform themselves into jinn. Religious texts and cultural studies frequently mention the jinn and the tribes they belong to, as well as practices related to the unseen world. Many of these practices have disappeared and many of the people who engage in the few that persist are often unaware of the origins of these practices.
Examples of protective practices used to guard against jinn include making amulets and charms known as hijab or tying beads onto children or livestock. These practices continue to be upheld in various parts of Sudan. For example the tradition of the harira, long strands of braided pure silk threads with a blue bead attached that are tied around the wrist. The harira is used as part of Sudanese customs associated with weddings—particularly the traditional jirtig ceremony—and circumcision. While this type of amulet is less obvious than the hijab, the harira is linked to the concept of protection from evil spirits and the evil eye, envy, and jinn. Elderly women, such as aunts and grandmothers, or other close relatives of the bride, groom, or child, oversee the making and tying of the harira, especially during circumcision rituals.
Amani Bashir, director of the Sheikan Museum, has written about the tradition of the ‘jinayh ring’ in El-Obeid and Kordofan. It is a metallic disc with the image of a man engraved on one side and the denomination of the jinayh, or pound, on the other. Originally made of pure gold, it can also be crafted from silver or other metals and is primarily worn by women as an item of jewellery. There are beliefs associated with wearing the jinayh ring, including protection from evil spirits. For this reason, a bride wears it for forty days after her wedding, as it is believed that during this time, she is at her most radiant and is surrounded by many evil spirits. Similarly, a woman who has given birth (and is in nufas) wears the ring for the same reason. Additionally, the groom wears it for seven days after his wedding. Thus, the jinayh ring is worn as a form of protection against negative energies that may harm individuals. Amulets, charms, and the jinayh ring are all talismans symbolizing protection and severing any attempts to communicate from another world.
However, there are other practices aimed at direct interaction with jinn, often to ask questions, seek guidance or forecast the future. Among the most well-known are rami al-wadi, the casting of cowrie shells and the spiritual cult of the Zar. In rami al-wadi seven shells, six similar in shape and size with one that is different, are selected then shaken together in cupped hands and cast onto the ground. The fortune-teller interprets the message based on the shells' positions, proximity to each other, or whether they land facing upwards or downwards. Each arrangement has a specific meaning, which may confirm or contradict previous readings. The questions posed by clients often concern others, seeking explanations for their problems, which may relate to the past, future, or a combination of both. It is believed that the fortune-teller can connect with another realm and interpret messages through the shells.
In contrast, the Zar—also known as the ‘red wind’—involves the participant (often referred to as ‘the possessed’) undergoing a ritual to appease the jinn that possesses them by fulfilling its demands, ultimately seeking relief or improvement. The Zar is believed to have African origins, migrating from Ethiopia to Sudan and Egypt. It is a ritual involving the summoning of ancestral spirits or jinn to fulfill their requests or channel their essence to heal individuals afflicted by jinn. Many regard the Zar as a therapeutic ritual credited with treating cases of hysteria and providing women with a means to cope with life's pressures. During Zar rituals, offerings are made to satisfy the spirits, including specific foods, music, songs, perfumes, incense, and garments. The rituals are often attended by women who assume different roles, such as the ‘Sheikhat al-Zar’ who leads the ceremony, her assistants, and ‘Haboba al-Kanun’ who is responsible for preparing the food. Different types of Zar rituals, known as ‘khiyut’ or threads, are performed, chosen depending on the type or gender of the jinn that has possessed the person. For example, the thread of ‘zarag’ involves spirits from West African tribes like the Hausa, Fulani, and South Sudan, and their rituals reflect cultural traditions in these areas.
Beyond the world of jinn and magic, Muslims often prefer seeking assistance directly from Allah without intermediaries. One practice for seeking blessings, alleviating hardships, or expressing gratitude is the karama or baraka meaning charity or blessing. A well-known example is karamat al-balila, a dish prepared and distributed to the needy. Specific traditions accompany karamat al-balila, such as cooking it in an open pot, as it is believed that the rising steam carries away all evil, illness, and afflictions, alongside the prayers recited during its preparation and distribution. It is customary that no one who encounters the dish is turned away, no matter how small their portion, as it is thought to bring blessings to the provider as well as to those who eat it.
Cover picture: Annual remembrance gathering in Sheik Hamad El Nil in Omdurman © Yousif Alshikh
Sheikhs and individuals believed to possess spiritual auras hold an important place in Sudanese society, particularly within Sudan’s Sufi traditions. These sheikhs often follow Islamic methods of healing and ruqya shariya (spiritual healing), which rely on the Quran and Sunnah as references for treatment. While the practice of sorcery and witchcraft are forbidden in Islam, some sheikhs have been known to engage in them for specific purposes. These commonly consulted sheikhs are referred to as ‘spiritual sheikhs’, and visits to their shrines are often associated with pleas to be reunited with a loved one, to break a curse, to influence someone's decision for example or even for more malicious demands, such as bringing misfortune to someone else—a practice referred to as ‘writing’ someone.
Unlike the established Sufi sheikhs, spiritual sheikhs are believed to communicate with beings from other realms. These sorcerers form pacts with ‘magic servants’ (jinn, marid, or ifrit), exchanging services to fulfill specific tasks. This form of communication is considered highly risky and may have possible unintended outcomes. The term jinn, plural of the masculine jinni or feminine jinniya, originates from the verb janna (to conceal or cover), as they are believed to exist hidden from human sight. In Islamic teachings and ancient Arab mythology, jinn are supernatural beings with intellect and understanding. They live in the same world as humans but are usually invisible. Their existence is widely accepted among Muslims.
In Sudan, some believe that faith in jinn and magic dates back to the pre-Kushite civilization. In more recent history, the residents of the ancient island of Suakin believe that jinn have inhabited the area since the time of the Prophet Solomon, and that the island’s name is a corruption of the words sawa (together), and jinn. Many stories and legends have been woven around Suakin, such as tales about its notorious cats who are believed to transform themselves into jinn. Religious texts and cultural studies frequently mention the jinn and the tribes they belong to, as well as practices related to the unseen world. Many of these practices have disappeared and many of the people who engage in the few that persist are often unaware of the origins of these practices.
Examples of protective practices used to guard against jinn include making amulets and charms known as hijab or tying beads onto children or livestock. These practices continue to be upheld in various parts of Sudan. For example the tradition of the harira, long strands of braided pure silk threads with a blue bead attached that are tied around the wrist. The harira is used as part of Sudanese customs associated with weddings—particularly the traditional jirtig ceremony—and circumcision. While this type of amulet is less obvious than the hijab, the harira is linked to the concept of protection from evil spirits and the evil eye, envy, and jinn. Elderly women, such as aunts and grandmothers, or other close relatives of the bride, groom, or child, oversee the making and tying of the harira, especially during circumcision rituals.
Amani Bashir, director of the Sheikan Museum, has written about the tradition of the ‘jinayh ring’ in El-Obeid and Kordofan. It is a metallic disc with the image of a man engraved on one side and the denomination of the jinayh, or pound, on the other. Originally made of pure gold, it can also be crafted from silver or other metals and is primarily worn by women as an item of jewellery. There are beliefs associated with wearing the jinayh ring, including protection from evil spirits. For this reason, a bride wears it for forty days after her wedding, as it is believed that during this time, she is at her most radiant and is surrounded by many evil spirits. Similarly, a woman who has given birth (and is in nufas) wears the ring for the same reason. Additionally, the groom wears it for seven days after his wedding. Thus, the jinayh ring is worn as a form of protection against negative energies that may harm individuals. Amulets, charms, and the jinayh ring are all talismans symbolizing protection and severing any attempts to communicate from another world.
However, there are other practices aimed at direct interaction with jinn, often to ask questions, seek guidance or forecast the future. Among the most well-known are rami al-wadi, the casting of cowrie shells and the spiritual cult of the Zar. In rami al-wadi seven shells, six similar in shape and size with one that is different, are selected then shaken together in cupped hands and cast onto the ground. The fortune-teller interprets the message based on the shells' positions, proximity to each other, or whether they land facing upwards or downwards. Each arrangement has a specific meaning, which may confirm or contradict previous readings. The questions posed by clients often concern others, seeking explanations for their problems, which may relate to the past, future, or a combination of both. It is believed that the fortune-teller can connect with another realm and interpret messages through the shells.
In contrast, the Zar—also known as the ‘red wind’—involves the participant (often referred to as ‘the possessed’) undergoing a ritual to appease the jinn that possesses them by fulfilling its demands, ultimately seeking relief or improvement. The Zar is believed to have African origins, migrating from Ethiopia to Sudan and Egypt. It is a ritual involving the summoning of ancestral spirits or jinn to fulfill their requests or channel their essence to heal individuals afflicted by jinn. Many regard the Zar as a therapeutic ritual credited with treating cases of hysteria and providing women with a means to cope with life's pressures. During Zar rituals, offerings are made to satisfy the spirits, including specific foods, music, songs, perfumes, incense, and garments. The rituals are often attended by women who assume different roles, such as the ‘Sheikhat al-Zar’ who leads the ceremony, her assistants, and ‘Haboba al-Kanun’ who is responsible for preparing the food. Different types of Zar rituals, known as ‘khiyut’ or threads, are performed, chosen depending on the type or gender of the jinn that has possessed the person. For example, the thread of ‘zarag’ involves spirits from West African tribes like the Hausa, Fulani, and South Sudan, and their rituals reflect cultural traditions in these areas.
Beyond the world of jinn and magic, Muslims often prefer seeking assistance directly from Allah without intermediaries. One practice for seeking blessings, alleviating hardships, or expressing gratitude is the karama or baraka meaning charity or blessing. A well-known example is karamat al-balila, a dish prepared and distributed to the needy. Specific traditions accompany karamat al-balila, such as cooking it in an open pot, as it is believed that the rising steam carries away all evil, illness, and afflictions, alongside the prayers recited during its preparation and distribution. It is customary that no one who encounters the dish is turned away, no matter how small their portion, as it is thought to bring blessings to the provider as well as to those who eat it.
Cover picture: Annual remembrance gathering in Sheik Hamad El Nil in Omdurman © Yousif Alshikh
